Introduction

This study is based on two collaborative creative research projects carried out at Auckland University of Technology in 2017, in which we explored creative avenues for the reuse and upcycling of discarded America’s Cup-type sails, made from valuable but currently single-use materials. One project, Navigator, aimed to divert commercial waste from landfill by transforming the sail material into commercially viable products. We produced a research report and a range of product designs: a variety of modular lampshades. The other project, Voyager, was the design of a piece of wearable art entirely made from the same waste material, made for public display (live shows and exhibition). Both projects investigated the conditions under which material-based, sustainable products using waste materials can be developed successfully.

Through reflexivity and the environmental, economic and social pillars of the triple bottom line of sustainability [1], our experiments focused on the composite and visually attractive material, following the four-step design process of the double diamond model. [2] While there were minor differences in the design process, the external conditions, briefs and agendas also influenced the perceived results of the respective projects. In the commercially driven project, Navigator, we encountered challenges in creating awareness, for some stakeholders, of the importance of experimentation and ‘failure’ – fundamental to the design process – and about what is considered a ‘successful’ outcome.

Our experiences, the outcomes and the discussions and reflections from both projects impacted our learnings and conclusions and have influenced our professional practice. We argue for the importance of research-driven and material-based practices that are aligned with a balanced sustainability approach, without privileging economic aspects. Also, in the relationships with industry stakeholders, it is important to be transparent about the challenges and impasses of practice-led research aiming to upcycle and reuse waste material.

Sustainability, waste reuse and upcycling

Sustainability as a topic has permeated education, political, economic and government agendas for decades. Perhaps the most used term is ‘sustainable development’, defined in the United Nations’ Brundtland Report in 1987 as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs,”[3] establishing environmental, social and economic dimensions in decision-making.[4] In 2016, the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals entered into force and were adopted by world leaders working towards ending poverty, tackling inequalities and mitigating climate change by 2030, making sure no one is left behind[5].

Over the last century, economic and social progress has impacted on the environment, directly degrading and endangering the systems we depend upon for survival and development. Consumption-driven societies produce and consume products with short lifecycles, generating exorbitant amounts of waste. Consequently, waste reduction has been used as a strategy in the production chain to alleviate the problem of pollution and achieve more sustainable product development. In this area, waste material recycling, reuse and upcycling have been common approaches.[6]

Upcycling encompasses the creation of products made from materials that have been previously used and/or are considered waste, generating a finished product of higher value and quality.[7] While recycling is commonly confused with upcycling, the difference lies in energy consumption, since with the latter the material does not require reprocessing. According to Szaky,[8] upcycling is one of the most sustainable circular solutions amongst waste strategies, positioned between reusing and recycling. There are scale levels of upcycling, such as industrial, medium-scale, small-scale and individual. At the individual level, upcycling has become part of a lifestyle for waste reduction and sustainable consumption.[9] The upcycling lifestyle is part of DIY (do-it-yourself), maker and repair movements aligned with waste reduction, reflected in the increasing number of individuals sharing information, physical resources and spaces, online and offline. These accessible spaces contribute to sharing resources, skills and knowledge on the reuse of waste material and on the fixing and making of products. This contributes to the creation of communities of like-minded individuals with similar values. [10]

In enterprises involving diverse stakeholders, like universities and research centres, as well as amongst design students and upcycling practitioners, there is now a shift in focus from individual upcycling towards small- and medium-scale development.[11] While these scalable and replicable initiatives could have long-term impacts, there are challenges and questions to be addressed: for example, can approaches relying on existing consumption-driven paradigms help to address sustainable development for the whole population, not just the privileged?

Integrating upcycling and waste material reuse into the design process

Educators and practitioners are noticing the need to create different design processes and methods to approach upcycling and waste material reuse projects, even proposing this to be integrated into design programmes to address sustainability. [12]Here, it is important to understand the differences between conventional product design processes and design processes where the integration of waste reuse has been contemplated. Frequently, design considers the creation of products based on raw, virgin or recycled materials, rather than reusing and upcycling existing ones. The integration of waste material and upcycling into the design process requires a shift in mindset and an approach primarily towards experimentation and ‘trial and error’, fundamental to the creative process of upcycling. Also, knowing and recording the stories of the original material or product in the sourcing stage has the potential to add value in the commercial stage.[13]

Upcycling and waste material reuse practices face challenges related to sourcing, transporting, cleaning and storing waste material before it is used in the manufacturing process. At the same time, the design process depends on the type of waste material collected and therefore requires constant adaption and experimentation.[14] It can be labour intensive and time consuming as it relies heavily on the designer’s skills as a creative and maker, and also on the prevailing commercial strategies,[15] issues that are reflected in the pricing. Here, it is necessary to consider whether reliance on the same consumption/market paradigm of commerce catering for high-end markets, which produced the problem in the first instance, can contribute to sustainable goals.

Waste reuse and upcycling for sustainability and the market

Around the world, sustainable waste reuse and upcycling practices address environmental, social and economic challenges. However, the reasons and motivations are different in the Global North and the Global South.[16] Reuse and upcycling in the Global North is almost a lifestyle and often results in small-scale businesses, while in the Global South limited resources and financial restrictions motivate these practices.[17] Hence, it is necessary to contextualise and adapt reuse and upcycling to the conditions of different contexts.

Even though upcycling and waste reuse are common approaches to reach sustainability goals, there are questions about their efficiency. In the 2010 World Economic Forum,[18] it was discussed that the current trends towards sustainability are not sufficient, even inefficient, producing only incremental changes. Achieving the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals by 2030 calls for radical and transformative practices. Sustainability requires constant examination, evaluation, testing, control and research of current practices, systems and cultures for the generation of new and effective alternatives. This involves transformation at different levels, such as systems, products, infrastructures, organisations, information, relationships, mindsets and praxis. Furthermore, the current economic system based on overconsumption and constant growth needs to change structurally,[19] towards a system that is more ethical and respectful for the environment and societies worldwide.

The research context: Aotearoa New Zealand and the ‘City of Sails’

Aotearoa[20] New Zealand has a strong history of sailing, with an outstanding performance on the world stage. Māori arrived from Eastern Polynesia, sailing waka (canoes) in the late thirteenth century,[21] navigating the ocean as their highway that connects places in a “sea of islands.”[22] The first Europeans (Dutch) navigated New Zealand waters in 1642, followed by the first longer-term visitors, such as whalers, in 1769 (English) and later colonial settlement.[23]

More recently, Auckland has played an important role in sailing. With the most boats per capita in the world, it has aptly been nicknamed the “City of Sails” (Figure 1)[24]. More than 40% of registered sailors and yachtsmen in the country live in the region encompassing Auckland, North Harbour and Waitakere.[25] The first regatta took place in 1850, and is today known as the Auckland Anniversary Regatta, taking place annually. It has been estimated that this regatta draws one of the largest fleets in the world.[26] Auckland has hosted two America’s Cup challenges, the oldest international sailing race, and is preparing for a third in 2021.[27]

Collaborating in the Discover and Define phases mainly consisted of allocating specific research tasks to the individuals, and conducting field research as a team, with regular team meetings. Storyboards and mood boards were significant tools to unpack ideas and narratives, and to visualise a certain ‘look and feel.’ After going through the phases of the first diamond, for both projects, we had a clear idea of the problem and the opportunity we wanted to pursue.

In the Develop and Deliver phases, we did extensive material experimentation, idea exploration and model making, where similarities helped us to reach common agreements. We had a couple of iterations of the Develop and Deliver phases for further concept and prototype development, to improve functionality, proportions, details and overall aesthetics in order to deliver high-quality working art-objects for both the Navigator and Voyager projects.

We consider regular team meetings a fundamental part of our process to discuss cultural backgrounds, narrative proposals and specific aspects to include in the outcome. These sessions were often playful and fun without personal attachment to any particular outcome, where key aspects were respect and positive feedback without judgement or negative language. This does not mean tension was not present at times but focusing on care and connection supported our journey. Collaborating as a team made us achieve more than we could have individually, getting us to a better outcome, but it also made working on the projects a lot more enjoyable. Our regular conversations allowed us to not only unpack the design process but to have open reflections on the challenges around design, funding, relationships with stakeholders and sustainability, in other words, individual and collective reflexivity.

Reflexivity for sustainability

Reflexivity as a research approach has been extensively used in social science research,[35] and is gaining attention in other fields. “Reflexivity involves a process of on-going mutual shaping between researcher and research,”[36] where our design experience and practice-led research involve extensive, individual and collective reflexive practice. This approach has also been used in sustainability,[37] and in particular in its connection to design and art. [38]

There are different links between art and design, sustainability, and reflexive practices. Sustainability needs deep changes in our attitudes and ways of living, requiring creative thinking and open minds to adapt to changing conditions, the “art of being different.” In this sense, it is a “more than rational” process, involving identities, emotions, lifestyles, desires and fears,[39] rather than goals. Here, connections to art and design become evident, since they relate to creativity, exploration, testing to transform, and a process of inquiry by creating. Designers and artists (craftspeople included) engage in creativity, divergent and convergent thinking and intuition to address specific topics and challenges.

Since sustainability is a process of change and exploration, reflexive practices in practice-led research support the integration of individual and collective reflections, feeding the research and design process. At the same time, the researchers transform their views as a result of their investigations, and this influences their practice. We consider this approach fundamental as designers and researchers, and it has impacted our current perspectives.

Sailing-inspired, practice-led research projects

The background stories

The Navigator project was organised by an external funder with a six-month duration. Out of thirty two applicants submitting a research proposal, five groups of designers were selected to investigate waste streams, find specific producers of waste, and design and make new products using the selected waste. Through the design of viable commercial outcomes, the project also aimed to enable community enterprises to integrate the social aspect of sustainability. As one of the team members had an existing relationship with a women-led refugee trust, we saw the potential, in their involvement, for them to become ongoing producers of the upcycled products, perhaps creating a revenue opportunity for them.

The World of WearableArt (WoW) is an internationally renowned design competition attracting entries from over forty countries for over thirty years: “Anything that is wearable art can find a place on the stage, if it is original, innovative and well executed.”[40] For three weeks every year, WoW showcases the best of these wearable creations in a spectacular stage show in Wellington, visited by around sixty thousand people. After obtaining a university’s research grant, we entered the competition with the Voyager project, aiming to explore the application of the discarded sail material, generating awareness of waste issues and adding value to the material and stories behind it. WoW’s brief was clear with no major constraints, and we took the opportunity to approach this as an art-based project, enabling us to explore beyond commercial product constraints.

Navigator: Product design with a commercial brief

Participating in this funded research project appealed to us because of the opportunity for it to have a tangible impact; adding value to waste materials and reducing waste quantities, as well as involving community enterprises to support the project and vice versa. Our initial approach to the project was to investigate local waste streams. We found large amounts of waste materials, mainly discarded products and packaging, but none seemed to have been designed with reuse in mind. Some did have recycling as a consideration, but we found that the recycling process is generally quite involved, with high energy consumption. We became most interested in developing new designs and systems that would eliminate waste in the first place, but the organiser insisted that we focus on the reuse of waste materials.

We approached the sailing industry, finding stockpiles of worn and outdated America’s Cup sails stored in containers on Auckland’s waterfront. These sails were huge, heavy, cumbersome, dirty, smelly, hard to cut due to the strong fibres used, and quite worn in places. Nevertheless, this once valuable and high-tech material was instantly appealing.

Our material exploration was extensive and thorough. We explored a multitude of product options, by means of collages, mood boards, sketches, and prototypes of products such as bags, pouches, cushion covers, hampers, lamp shades, bean bags, shade sails and outdoor swing pods, to name a few (Figure 3).

Aiming to investigate all three pillars of sustainability – the environmental, economic and social factors – we collaborated with a women-led refugee trust to explore how a sustainable business model could be created to support their growth. However, challenges to establish long-term work emerged, as it would require our full-time involvement and the creation of a social enterprise for the reuse of waste materials. We realised that in order to create a successful business model and take products to market, enterprises require a proactive and entrepreneurial mindset. Another concern was ethical, that of engaging vulnerable communities to ‘solve’ problems mindlessly created by the elite.

We were selected as finalists in the New Zealand Best Design Awards in the Sustainability category, but despite this success the project stayed in the prototype phase and was never commercially realised. Some of the reasons behind this were: 1. Once we understood the labour-intensive process of reusing the material, we realised it would be very hard to make this economically viable; 2. The commercialisation of the lamp would not qualify as academic research; 3. We have no expertise in marketing, distribution or selling of products; and 4. We felt that the social business model needed to be explored further, as we wanted the project to be socially beneficial. The insights we gained, partially through failure, were not seen as acceptable research outcomes by the project organiser.

Our key insights from this project were, first, that we found it extremely hard to commercially use this type of waste material where the end-of-life or reuse options had not been taken into consideration when originally manufactured. The waste stage must be factored into a material or product from the start, especially for a composite material. Second, we found it greatly ethically concerning to rely on vulnerable communities to offset the cost of privileged and/or commercial activities that lack regard for their environmental consequences.

Voyager: Wearable art for public exhibit

With our already acquired expertise, aiming to further explore applications of discarded sail material and determined to make a positive impact by creating awareness about waste and highlighting its value, we decided to enter the World of WearableArts competition, in the Aotearoa section. Our outfit, Voyager, was inspired by the sea and its creatures, as well as the sailing traditions from Polynesian and European cultures, both prominent in Aotearoa New Zealand. The guidelines of the competition were clear in their requirements and limitations: the garment had to be worn by a certain-sized person and delivered to Wellington. We also addressed the criteria of WoW’s Sustainability Award by crafting a “garment designed to maximise use of discarded materials and made from at least eighty-five per cent post-consumer and/or post-industrial repurposed materials.”[41] With an art-based approach in mind and without substantial garment-making experience or skills, developing this piece was a playful process, free of preconceptions of costume or garment design. We tested several techniques, such as using our bodies and dolls, making drawings and collages, as well as making full-scale prototypes (Figure 5).

Since no one in our team was of Māori descent, we were careful to balance both cultural inputs and made no claim that our design was Māori. We also consulted with Māori scholars about respectful approaches on the matter. However, in the show, our garment was showcased with a performance using Māori elements and movements such as pūkana[42] without our knowledge or consent. Concerns about misrepresentation and cultural appropriation emerged after seeing the performance, especially in relation to the staging of the show section in which our garment was a part. This experience made us realise the limited control designers have over their creations in relation to perception, placement and promotion, decisions frequently made by funders and organisers (Figure 7).

The comparison

The Navigator and Voyager material-based designs had many things in common, like the reuse of discarded sails for sustainability, but our experiences working on both projects were different. Using the double diamond design model as reference, we made a comparison of the design process, organiser requirements, circumstances and experiences, for a holistic approach and to analyse why and how the differences came to be. We concluded that external factors were the main drivers, issues over which we had little or no influence (Figure 8).